Stromatoporoids of the upper Hirnantian (Upper Ordovician) Shiqian Formation of South China: implications for environmental interpretation and the Ordovician–Silurian stromatoporoid transition
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In the Ordovician of Baltica, burrows assigned to the ichnogenus Arachnostega Bertling, 1992 occur in steinkerns of bivalves, cephalopods, gastropods and hyolithids.Arachnostega abundance decreased significantly during the Ordovician in Baltica.It was most abundant in the Darriwilian (17% of gastropod steinkerns), slightly less abundant in the Sandbian (11% of gastropod steinkerns) and least abundant in the Katian (3% of gastropod steinkerns).This change in Arachnostega abundance correlates well with the regional climatic change (from temperate to tropics) during this interval, along with resulting changes in sedimentary environment, geochemistry and biota.Arachnostega was substrate selective and preferred bivalves over gastropods.Arachnostega occurs only in the Middle and Upper Ordovician of Estonia and is absent in the Lower Ordovician.
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The Ordovician hardground faunas of Estonia are not diverse. They include echinoderm holdfasts (i.e., eocrinoids and crinoids), edrioasteroids, bryozoans (both hemispherical trepostomes and stalked ptilodictyids) and cornulitids. The earliest hardground faunas appeared in the Dapingian (i.e., bryozoans and echinoderms). The Estonian hardground faunas are less diverse than the North American ones. North American hardgrounds seem to be more heavily encrusted than the Estonian ones. These differences may be due to the paleogeographic distances, different climates and different sedimentation environments of the paleocontinents.
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The genus Veryhachium Deunff, 1954, is one of the most frequently documented acritarch genera, being recorded from the Early Ordovician to the Neogene. Detailed investigations show that Veryhachium species first appeared near the South Pole in the earliest part of the Tremadocian (Early Ordovician). The genus was present at high palaeolatitudes (generally>60° S) on the Gondwanan margin during the Tremadocian before spreading to lower palaeolatitudes on the Gondwanan margin and other palaeocontinents (Avalonia and Baltica) during the Floian. It became cosmopolitan in the Middle and Late Ordovician. Although useful for distinguishing Ordovician from Cambrian strata, the diachronous first appearance data of Veryhachium morphotypes mean that they should be used with caution for long-distance correlation.
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Signs of predation appear in the Middle Ordovician of Baltica. Shell repair dominates over the predatory borings in the Ordovician and Silurian. Predators attacked molluscs, brachiopods and tentaculitoids in the Ordovician and molluscs, tentaculitoids, brachiopods and ostracods in the Silurian. There is an increase in the number of prey species in the Late Ordovician, which could be related to the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. Molluscs are the favourite prey taxon in the Ordovician, but in the Silurian, molluscs became less dominant as the prey. This is probably not an artefact of preservation as Ordovician and Silurian molluscs are equally well preserved.
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ABSTRACT The earliest Petroxestes borings were excavated in large trepostome bryozoans in the Sandbian (earliest Late Ordovician) of Estonia. The Estonian specimens are morphologically similar to the type material from the later Katian of North America. Petroxestes pera is rare in the Sandbian of Estonia and occurs only in biogenic hard substrates. Petroxestes borings occur in muddy environments that were preferred by macroborers in the Hirnantian and early Silurian of North America. It is possible that muddy environments supported higher bioerosion intensities and higher diversity of bioerosional traces in the shallow epicontinental seas of the Late Ordovician. The discovery of Petroxestes in the Sandbian of Estonia supports the idea that there was an earliest Late Ordovician peak in the diversification of borings in Baltica. It is possible that there was a migration of bioerosional trace makers from Baltica to Laurentia in the Late Ordovician.
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The earliest Osprioneides kampto borings were found in bryozoan colonies of Sandbian age from northern Estonia (Baltica). The Ordovician was a time of great increase in the quantities of hard substrate removed by single trace makers. Increased predation pressure was most likely the driving force behind the infaunalization of larger invertebrates such as the Osprioneides trace makers in the Ordovician. It is possible that the Osprioneides borer originated in Baltica or in other paleocontinents outside of North America.
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