New insights into the mineralogy of D" beneath the North Atlantic region
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A broad, multi-disciplinary overview of the late Paleozoic to Recent geological evolution of much of northeastern North America, Greenland, all of Europe, and the northern parts of North Africa. This outstanding synthesis of regional geology retraces the evolution of sedimentary basins developed during the rifting phases that preceded the opening of North Atlantic ocean basins and highlights the scope of the associated intra-plate phenomena.This CD publication is the digital version of AAPG's landmark 1988 volume on the evolution of the North Atlantic Ocean. Ten chapters and 30 full-color plates. 200 pages. All articles presented in Adobe Acrobat PDF format.
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The Gander Conference, an International Conference on Stratigraphy and Structure Bearing on the Origin of the North Atlantic Ocean, was held in Gander, Newfoundland, August 1967. The conference gave geologists familiar with the areas bordering the North Atlantic Ocean with an opportunity to present their knowledge and ideas to colleagues dealing with similar rocks and structures. This publication contains most of the papers that were presented at that conference and a few others that were prepared for the sessions.
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Late Proterozoic through Early Permian evaporite deposits are widespread in northern Canada, Greenland, and northern Eurasia. All of these evaporites are found today on the Atlantic Ocean, Eurasia, and Canada sides of the Lomonosov Ridge and its extensions into northern Siberia and northern Canada. No evaporites are known to be present on the Pacific side of the Lomonosov Ridge or north of its extensions into Siberia and Canada. This fact alone suggests that the Atlantic Ocean has been open into the Arctic since middle to late Proterozoic time; it further suggests that the Lomonosov Ridge and its continental extensions were in existence by late Proterozoic time. Hence, the distribution pattern indicates that the evaporites were brought in by, and precipitated from, marine waters entering via the present location of the Atlantic Ocean and the Lena Trough. Geologic data from Iceland, new geophysical data from the North Atlantic Ocean, and physical continuity of the Proterozoic Lomonosovides around the Canadian basin of the Arctic Ocean lend strong support to the interpretation given here. Post-Devonian evaporite deposits in the Arctic are scarce, and their depocenters generally are farther south than those of Devonian and pre-Devonian times. The locations of the post-Devonian evaporite depocenters appear to be related to the formation of two sills across the present North Atlantic: the Franz Josef sill between Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen, separating the Arctic from the North Atlantic, and the Faeroe-Greenland sill extending from Scotland to southeastern Greenland. Because the known evaporite-distribution patterns show such close relations among the present North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans; the present continental positions; and the existing sites of the Lomonosov Ridge, the Franz Josef sill, and the Faeroe-Greenland sill, postulation of plate-tectonic models for the formation of the North Atlantic and Arctic is unnecessary. In fact, no plate-tectonic or polar-wandering mechanism yet proposed explains the orderly geometric relations between the evaporite deposits and the observed geographic-topographic features. Hence, sea-floor spreading, plate motions, and polar wandering--if they ever took place in the North Atlantic-Arctic region--were pre-late Proterozoic events.
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Sill
Canada Basin
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Sedimentation
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Fracture zone
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Basement
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The model applies plate-tectonics to explain the geologic evolution of southeastern Atlantic Canada and northwestern Africa. The North Atlantic may have opened and closed several times from the middle Cryptozoic to the present. Closings of the ocean caused collisions between continents and also island arcs. Openings were ragged so that parts of one continent were transposed to the other, and sialic fragments became offshore micro-continents. Africa has progressively lost increments of continental crust to North America.Precambrian blocks of southeastern Atlantic Canada may be remnants of an African shelf. which was crumpled during a billion-year old continental collision (Grenville orogeny). After ragged rifting during the Late Precambrian these fragmentary blocks were carried eastward as micro-continents off Africa. Both early (Danakil Alps of the Red Sea) and late-stage (Canary Islands) recent analogues appear valid. The micro-continents ponded turbidites, which formed rise-complexes off Africa. Continental glaciations in the Late Precambrian and Late Ordovician not only make excellent inter-regional chronostratigraphic units in almost unfossiliferous strata. but also may confirm the African origin of Nova Scotia. Subducting plate-margins increased offshore volcanism and narrowed the Paleozoic Atlantic. Late Paleozoic continental collision again between Africa and North America sandwiched the micro-continent, telescoped the sedimentary/volcanic complexes, and flooded the sutured area with granodiorite. Middle Carboniferous carbonates and sulfates record vestiges of the Paleozoic Atlantic, and mixing of the Euro-African fauna with that of the western Paleozoic Atlantic of the northwestern Appalachians. The Atlantic was closed at least along the latitude of Atlantic Canada and Morocco. During the Mesozoic, an accreting margin uplifted this area, quickened redbed deposition and volcanism, initiated restricted marine sedimentation, and inaugurated the present North Atlantic east of the African remnant of southeastern Atlantic Canada.
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Pangaea
Late Devonian extinction
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1. Exploration.- Ancient Man.- Early North African and European Voyages.- General.- Celts.- Phoenicians-Iberians.- Egyptians-Libyans.- Greeks-Massilians.- Romans.- Vikings-Norse.- Maps.- European Voyages after 1400 A.D..- General.- Africa.- North America.- South America.- 2. Physiography.- Historical Development.- Hypsometry.- Physiographic Diagrams.- Land Areas.- Coasts and Shores.- Seacliffs.- Estuaries and Lagoons.- Continental Shelves.- Definitions.- Dimensions.- Detailed Morphology.- General.- Glacial, Diapir, Fault, and Slump Topographies.- Subaerial Topography.- Submerged Shore Topography.- Youthful Marine Topography.- Sea-Level History.- General.- The Past 36,000 Years.- The Past 6000 Years.- The Past 100 Years.- Future Levels.- Continental Slopes.- Definitions and Dimensions.- General Topography.- Carbonate Platforms and Escarpments.- Salt and Mud Diapirs.- Tectonism.- Submarine Canyons.- Landslide Scars.- Large Deltas and Deep-Ocean Cones.- Continental Rises.- General.- Deep-Ocean Channels.- Mass Movements.- Origin.- Abyssal Plains.- Abyssal Aprons.- General.- Sediment Drifts.- Other Sedimentary Features.- Eroded Areas of Deep-Ocean Floor.- Spreading (Primary) Ridges and Fracture Zones.- Geophysical Background.- North Atlantic Ocean.- South Atlantic Ocean.- Some General Characteristics.- Bathymetric Interpretations.- Poles of Plate Rotation.- Packets and Wedges of Fracture Zones.- Longitudinal Profiles.- Transverse Profiles.- Abyssal Hills.- Rock Falls and Slumps.- Convergence Ridges.- Aseismic Ridges.- General.- Mantle Plumes.- Extinct Spreading Belts.- Extinct Subduction Belt.- Horsts of Oceanic Crustal Rocks.- Microcontinents.- Continental Extensions.- Sedimentary Ridges.- Active Volcanoes.- Seamounts and Guyots.- Troughs.- General.- Glacial Troughs.- Carbonate Troughs.- Fracture Zone Troughs.- Divergence Troughs.- Plate Translation Troughs.- Convergence Troughs.- Sediment Troughs.- Troughs in Continental Crust.- Trenches.- 3. Internal Igneous Structure.- Historical Development.- Core.- General.- Geomagnetism.- Geoid.- Mantle.- General.- Seismicity.- Heat Flow.- Geoid and Gravity.- Composition.- Top of Mantle.- Oceanic Crust (Layer 3).- Seismic Properties.- Thickness and Depth to Top.- Composition.- Basaltic Layer (Layer 2).- Seismic Properties.- Thickness and Depth to Top.- Composition and Origin.- Magnetic Reversals.- Importance to Plate Tectonics.- Recognition and Origin.- Dating of Reversals.- Mapping of Lineations.- Slope Anomaly.- Smooth (Quiet) Zones (Belts).- Spreading Belts.- Triple Junctions.- Age of Layer 2.- Magnetic Pole Positions.- Modern and Historical Times.- Geological Times.- Paleogeography.- Plate Movements and Opening of Atlantic Ocean.- Paleobiogeography.- Paleosealevels and Plate Movements.- Previous and Future Atlantic Oceans.- Continental Crust.- General Structure.- Magnetic Patterns.- Seismicity.- General.- Divergence Boundaries.- Translation Boundaries.- Convergence Boundaries.- Plate Interiors.- Gravity.- General.- Plate Convergence.- Plate Divergence.- Plate Translation.- Less Completely Compensated at Depth.- Topography of Ocean Surface.- 4. The Syn-Rift Supersequence and Crustal Boundary.- Pangaea and Its Construction.- Background.- Information from North Atlantic Fragments.- Information from the South Atlantic.- Pangaea as a Whole.- Breakup of Pangaea.- Early Stages.- Southern North Atlantic.- Southernmost North Atlantic.- South Atlantic.- Northern North Atlantic.- Continental/Oceanic Crustal Boundary.- Continental Separation.- Divergent Margins.- General Forms.- Listric Faulting.- Listric Faulting/Intrusion.- Normal Faulting and Outer Highs.- Basement Hinge.- Listric Faulting Model (With or Without Outer Highs).- Normal Faulting and Outer-High Model.- Basement Hinge Model.- Translation Margins.- Distribution and Cause.- North Atlantic.- Bahamas, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Northern South America, Gulf of Guinea.- South Atlantic.- Divergent-Convergent Margin of Northern Spain.- Convergent (Oceanic Subduction) Margins.- 5. Drift Supersequence.- Background.- Southern North Atlantic.- Tectonic Setting.- Lower Jurassic.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- West African Margin.- Middle Jurassic.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Upper Jurassic to Lowermost Cretaceous (Berriasian).- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- Carolina Trough-Blake Plateau.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Deep Ocean: East Side.- Upper Tithonian/Valanginian to Barremian.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- Carolina Trough-Blake Plateau.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Deep Ocean: East Side.- Aptian to Maestrichtian.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- Carolina Trough-Blake Plateau-Bahamas.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Deep Ocean: East Side.- Cenozoic.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Long Island Platform-Baltimore Canyon.- Trough-Carolina Trough.- Blake Plateau-Bahamas.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Deep Ocean: East Side.- Gulf of Mexico.- Upper Jurassic (Oxfordian) to Lowermost Cretaceous (Berriasian).- Lower Cretaceous (Valanginian to Mid-Cenomanian).- Upper Cretaceous (Mid-Cenomanian) to Mid-Paleocene (Danian).- Upper Paleocene (Thanetian) to Lower Eocene (Ypresian) and Lower Eocene (Ypresian) to Upper Oligocene (Chattian).- Upper Oligocene (Chattian) to Upper Miocene(Messinian).- Upper Miocene (Messinian) to Pliocene.- Quaternary.- Caribbean Sea.- Yucatan Basin.- Chords Block.- Colombia Basin-Beata Ridge-Venezuela Basin.- Northern and Southern Margins of Venezuela Basin.- Aves Ridge-Grenada Trough-Antilles Ridge-Barbados Ridge.- Southern Ocean.- South Atlantic.- Falkland Plateau Region.- Agulhas Plateau.- Argentina Basin.- Cape Basin.- Torres Ridge -Walvis Ridge.- Brazil Basin.- Mid-Atlantic Ridge.- Angola Basin.- Equatorial Atlantic.- General.- Northern Brazilian Margin.- Gulf of Guinea.- Northern North Atlantic.- General Iberian Geology.- Western Iberian Margin.- Northern Iberian Margin (Southern Margin Bay of Biscay).- Northeastern Margin of Bay of Biscay.- North Sea (North-West European Basin).- Newfoundland Margin.- South Labrador Margin.- Labrador Marginal Trough.- West Rockall Plateau and East Greenland Margins.- Deep-Ocean Floor.- General Structure.- Cretaceous to Eocene.- Horizon R4.- Oligocene to Present.- 6. Sediment Provenance and Properties.- General.- Present Volumes.- Volumes for Entire Earth.- Compaction.- Original Volumes.- Rates of Deposition of Total Sediments.- Sources.- Detrital.- Organic.- Pathways.- Composition and Provenance of Surface Layer.- General Description and Classification.- Grain Size.- Detrital Sands.- Calcium Carbonate.- Productivity of Larger Planktonic Foraminiferans.- Amorphous Silica.- Organic Carbon.- Organic Nitrogen.- Organic Phosphorus.- Organic Matter-Mineralization and Budget.- Clay Minerals.- Authigenic Minerals.- General Background.- Ferromanganese Nodules and Pavements.- Phosphorite.- Glauconite.- Zeolites.- Barite.- Opal and Chert.- Others.- Echo Character.- 7. Evolution of the Ocean Floor.- Purpose.- Continental Margins.- Relationship to Igneous Crusts.- Volume of Sediments.- Classification by Plate Movement.- Classification by Stage of Development.- Subsidence.- Basins.- Distribution.- Classification.- Discontinuities in Deposition.- Changing Outlines and Depths.- Changing Sediments.- Main Events in History of Atlantic Ocean.- Perspective.- Genesis-Early Rifting Phase (Permian).- Mid-Rift Phase (Triassic).- Late Phase (Latest Triassic-Early Jurassic).- Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny and Beginning of Sea-FloorSpreading.- Drifting-Early Phase (Middle Jurassic).- Carbonate Platform Phase (Late Jurassic to Earliest Cretaceous).- Wealden and Black-Shale Facies (Early Cretaceous to Earliest Late Cretaceous).- The Great Flood (Late Cretaceous).- The Face of the Abyss (Paleogene).- Background.- Europe and Africa.- Greenland, North America, and South America.- Mid-Ocean.- Oceanic Sediment Drifts and Coming of Man (Neogene).- Background.- Europe and Africa.- Greenland, North America, and South America.- Mid-Ocean.- The Great Ice Age and the Ascent of Man (Quaternary).- 8. Interfaces Between Ocean and Man.- Historical Background.- The Beginning.- Increase of Population.- Changing Environments.- Changing Needs of Humans.- Relation to Coasts.- Food Supply.- Past.- Present.- Future.- Water Supply.- Transportation.- Fish.- Freight.- Military.- Building Materials.- Building Sites.- General.- Mud Flats.- Sand Beaches.- Seacliffs.- Waste Disposal.- General.- Float.- Sink.- Dissolve.- Categories.- Halogenated Hydrocarbons.- Heavy Metals.- Radionuclides.- Petroleum.- Miscellaneous.- Overview.- Petroleum.- Chemistry.- Origins and Sources.- Accumulation.- Production.- Future Prospects.- Offshore Expectations.- Gas Hydrates.- World Budget.- Energy in Water.- Hard Minerals.- Continental Shelf.- Deep-Ocean Floor.- Ownership.
Marine geology
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Stimulated by the wealth of frontier exploration data and deep seismic surveys about the North Atlantic margins, this publication was crafted to provide a comprehensive analysis of North Atlantic extension. The 40 papers in this volume are divided into 6 sections: concepts, North Atlantic perspectives, North American margins, European-African margins, North Sea and Barents Shelf, and analogs. This book is concerned primarily with the circum-North Atlantic data base. It is largely biased toward presentation and interpretation of data rather than being model driven. The book includes comparative stratigraphic columns for basins of the North Atlantic margins.
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Gulf Stream
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