The Jinhe–Qinghe fault—An inactive branch of the Xianshuihe–Xiaojiang fault zone, Eastern Tibet
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Thrust fault
Flathead
Transform fault
Fault trace
Extensional fault
Echelon formation
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The Shekarab fault system, located in the north of the Birjand city, has fault scarps parallel to main fault. Due to the structural features, mechanism of fault trends in the region, fault-related folding and the occurrence of the migration from the north to the south at Shekarab fault, modeling is done for the geometric pattern of the fault propagation, which is in accordance with the Shekarab fault zone. In this model, new scarps are formed in the footwall of the previous scarps. According to the results of modeling, the most important factor for creating alternate scarps is the north-south compression in the Shekarab thrust. At each step, by increasing the amount of shortening, the emergence of new faults are observed so that the first thrust is created on the northern side of the Shekarab zone and subsequent faults are created by increasing the amount of shortening up to a maximum of 58%, on the southern side of the zone and on the footwall of the previous faults. In this modeling, the slope of the thrusts is created in four stages of shortening varying between 60-65 degrees, which is comparable with the actual slope of the Shekarab faults of 70 degrees. According to the experimental results, the sequence of thrust creation in each modeling stage is consistent with the sequence of thrust in the Shekarab zone and with the north-south migration of the fault. According to the geometry of thrusts and back-thrust, the model of formation of structures in this fault zone is the foreland breaking sequence model so that the branches of the thrust originate from a point.
Thrust fault
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To understand the interaction of surface and tectonic processes during the formation of fault rocks, we studied two faults located in the Abruzzi Appenines NE of L’Aquila, that have been active in historical time. The south-dipping Assergi fault is at least 17 km long, with an offset of 2.5 km in its central part. Over most of its extent, the fault is evident by a scarp. Present day morphology is related to selective erosion, as the fault scarp is covered in some areas by lithified talus deposits. The talus is, however, in many places involved in the faulting. The Campo Imperatore fault is about 30 km long, with an offset of 2 km. The fault is located a few km north of the Assergi fault and has approximately the same orientation. It seems to be complimentary to the Assergi fault: where the offset across the Assergi fault diminishes, throw of the Campo Imperatore fault increases. The fault scarp of the Campo Imperatore fault is partly covered by active alluvial fans, but older lithified fans are offset by related antithetic faults. Both faults have several meters of fault rocks; The fault rocks of the Campo Imperatore fault are kakirites. Cataclasites of the Assergi fault vary in thickness between 15 and 3 meters, which is related to the presence of Riedel shears that offset the boundary between the host rock and the fault rock. Within the cataclasites diffuse Riedel planes crosscut the fault rocks and offset diffuse or sharp planes parallel to the main fault that can be closely spaced. Diffuse zones parallel to the main fault show karstic vugs produced by meteoric dissolution. The vugs may be lined or filled by calcite cement, and/or with internal sediments (e. g., lime mud, vadose silt, dissolution clasts of cataclasite). Meteoric dissolution guided by the main faults also resulted in large karstic pores filled with collapse breccias and flowstones; clasts of flowstones and flowstone-cemented breccias, in turn, locally became reworked into cataclasites. Presence or absence of solution and precipitation processes control the formation of cataclasites at the Assergi fault and kakirites at the Campo Imperatore fault, respectively. Processes shaping the fault rocks of the investigated faults are therefore not only tectonic processes controlling the crushing of rock, but also diagenetic processes. Under these conditions, which are probably widespread, cataclasites may form near the surface. Surface processes can control the appearance of fault rocks of seismogenic faults.
Echelon formation
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Abstract. The characteristics of the zones of coseismic surface faulting along thrust faults are analysed in order to define the criteria for zoning the Surface Fault Rupture Hazard (SFRH) along thrust faults. Normal and strike-slip faults have been deeply studied in the past concerning SFRH, while thrust faults have not been studied with comparable attention. Surface faulting data were collected from 10 well-studied historic thrust earthquakes occurred globally (5.4 ≤ M ≤ 7.9). Several different types of coseismic fault scarps characterise the analysed earthquakes, depending on the topography, fault geometry and near-surface materials (simple and hanging wall collapse scarps; pressure ridges; fold scarps and thrust or pressure ridges with bending-moment or flexural-slip secondary faults due to large-scale folding). For all the earthquakes, the distance of secondary ruptures from the main fault (r) and the width of the rupture zone (WRZ) were collected directly from the literature or measured systematically in GIS-georeferenced published maps. Overall, surface ruptures can occur up to large distances from the main fault (~ 750 m on the footwall and ~ 1600 m on the hanging wall). Most of them occur on the hanging wall, preferentially in the vicinity of the main fault trace (
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We use freely available Google satellite data, instrumental seismicity, fault plane solutions, and previously mapped structural and geological maps to identify new fault zones in central Borneo. We have mapped a number of ~NW-SE trending dextral strike-slip faults and ~NE-SW to ~N-S trending sinistral strike-slip fault zones. The geomorphic expression of faulting is shown by the well-developed triangular facets, fault rupture scarps, truncated sedimentary beds, topographic breaks, displaced ridges, deflected streams, faulted Plio-Pleistocene volcanic deposits, and back-tilted Holocene to Recent sedimentary deposits. Some of the mapped faults are actively growing, and show text-book examples of dextral and sinistral offset, which ranges from ~450 m to tens of km. The dextral strike-slip fault systems are clearly developed in the central and eastern portions of Borneo where they cut through the folded sedimentary sequences for >220 km. The ~NE-SW to ~N-S trending sinistral strike-slip faults are dominantly developed in the eastern portion of central Borneo for >230 km. The geomorphic expression of faulting is clear and the fault scarps are ~SE facing for the sinistral fault system, and ~NE facing for the dextral fault system. The age of the faulting is constrained by the cross-cutting relationship where the fault cuts through Plio-Pleistocene volcanic deposits for >30 km, which suggests a neotectonic nature of faulting. The strike-slip fault systems that we have mapped here provide the first geomorphic evidence of large-scale strike-slip faulting in Borneo and suggest the presence of a major sinistral strike-slip fault that runs for >900 km through the center of Borneo, and forms a backbone onto which most of the mapped structures root. The mapped structures clearly suggest that plate tectonic forces dominantly control the geological structures that we have mapped and support the regional oblique convergence that is oblique with respect to the major trend of the Crocker Range, which forms the spine of the Borneo Island.
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Thrust fault
Deglaciation
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Examination of the Serghaya fault, a branch of the Dead Sea Fault System in western Syria and eastern Lebanon, documents Late Quaternary and Recent left-lateral fault movements including the probable remnant of a historic coseismic surface rupture. Carbon-14 dating and the presence of fault-scarp free faces in soft, late Pleistocene lake deposits suggest coseismic slip during the past two or three centuries, possibly corresponding with one of the well-documented earthquakes of 1705 or 1759. With an estimated Holocene slip rate of 1–2 mm a −1 , the Serghaya Fault accommodates a significant part of the active deformation along the Arabian–African plate boundary. These results suggest that multiple active fault branches are involved in the transfer of strain through the ‘Lebanese’ restraining bend.
Dead sea
Paleoseismology
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The dominant tectonic-force factor in the Sulawesi Island is the westward Bangga-Sula microplate tectonic intrusion, driven by the 12 mm/year westward motion of the Pacific Plate relative to Eurasia. This tectonic intrusion are accommodated by a series of major left-lateral strike-slip fault zones including Sorong Fault, Sula-Sorong Fault, Matano Fault, Palukoro Fault, and Lawanopo Fault zones. The Lawanopo fault has been considered as an active left-lateral strike-slip fault. The natural exposures of the Lawanopo Fault are clear, marked by the breaks and liniemants of topography along the fault line, and also it serves as a tectonic boundary between the different rock assemblages. Inpections of IFSAR 5m-grid DEM and field checks show that the fault traces are visible by lineaments of topographical slope breaks, linear ridges and stream valleys, ridge neckings, and they are also associated with hydrothermal deposits and hot springs. These are characteristics of young fault, so their morphological expressions can be seen still. However, fault scarps and other morpho-tectonic features appear to have been diffused by erosions and young sediment depositions. No fresh fault scarps, stream deflections or offsets, or any influences of fault movements on recent landscapes are observed associated with fault traces. Hence, the faults do not show any evidence of recent activity. This is consistent with lack of seismicity on the fault.
Transform fault
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