Reconstructing a Prairie-Woodland Mosaic on the Northern Great Plains: Risk, Resilience, and Resource Management
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AbstractRecent geological evidence of high-amplitude, short-term, climatic variability on the northern Plains in the late Holocene implies that significant fluctuations in resource availability may have regularly occurred on the scale of human generations. In this region, evidence of high mobility, low population density, and storage are generalized responses of hunter-gatherer populations to the effects of environmental variability on resourcepredictability. In order to achieve more sophisticated understanding of the relationship between risk, environment, and land-use for the last few thousand years, we suggest that multidisciplinary reconstruction of detailed landscape histories is necessary. This is so because landscape histories may encode: (1) spatial and temporal variability in habitat diversity (i.e., patchiness); (2) geographical differences in ecosystem resilience and resistance to short-term macro climatic variability; and (3) enhancement of resource predictability or diversity through lnanagement practices such as anthropogenic burning. Modern vegetation surveys, presettlement landcover reconstructions, and recent geomorphic and paleo vegetation data from the Oak Lake Sandhills, Manitoba, Canada, are assembled to illustrate these points.Keywords: landscape reconstructionhistorical ecologyhunter-gatherer land useanthropogenic burningnorthern Great Plains过去的 13000 一 from 胡古安吉安·马尔·莱克的一个高分辨率的花粉记录在 Holocene 期间在南部的中国揭示植被和环境变化。它证明树和灌木的那个(i) 花粉百分比在早 Holocene 期间到达了 56%(11600—7800 cal BP ) ，哪个热带树的花粉百分比在 9500 点到达了最大值—8000 cal BP，反映热、湿的环境；(i i ) 在 mid-Holocene 期间(7800—4200 cal BP ) ，当热带副热带的树的百分比减少了时，山区的具球果的树和植物的花粉百分比增加了，显示降低温度和湿度；(iii ) 从 4200 ～ 350 在迟了的 Holocene 跨越 BP，植物的花粉百分比和山区的针叶树显著地增加了的 cal，显示温度和湿度的显著减少。我们的花粉数据揭示时间时期 9500—在南部的中国的 BP 代表的 8000 cal 为 Holocene 的气候的最佳由热、湿的条件描绘了。这与 Holocene 最佳全球性在更低的纬度区域发现了一致。我们推测那个强壮的曝晒力量原因向北方 ITCZ 和副热带的夏天季风前面的移植，它在 Huguangyan 区域导致了早 Holocene 最佳。中间、迟了的 Holocene 的干燥趋势和气候变化能在太阳的曝晒和经常的 ENSO 事件与减少被联系。
Intertropical Convergence Zone
Holocene climatic optimum
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Taking two composite Landsat 5 TM(thematic mapper)images in 1986 and 2006 and land use map of Yinzhou town,Mizhi County in 1996 as data resources,land use/land cover changes(LUCC)of Yinzhou from 1986 to 2006 are studied using the Geographical Information System(ArcGIS 9.0)and ERDAS(remote sensing software).Results show that great changes have taken place in land use/land cover in Yinzhou from 1986 to 2006.From 1986 to 1996,change of land use structure was characterized by increases in cropland and other land use types and on the contrary water area,by decreases in woodland and grassland.Cropland changed obviously and woodland and grassland were mainly converted into cropland.From 1996 to 2006,change of land use structure was characterized by increases in woodland and grassland increased.On the contrary,water area,cropland,and other land use types decreased.Cropland was mainly converted into woodland and grassland driven by the policy of returning farmland to forest and grassland.From 1986 to 2006,change of land use structure was characterized by increases in grassland and other land use types increased and on the contrary,by decreases in water area,cropland,and woodland.Water area,cropland,and woodland were mainly converted into grassland and other land use types.Land use change was mainly taken place in slope area and some croplands beside Wuding River were converted into other land use types.Although the ecological environment had been greatly improved in the area,it is still a long term task to protect and recover ecological environment by the policy of returning farmland to forest and grassland.
Land Cover
Thematic Mapper
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在为硅藻，种子和 phytoliths 的 Tianluoshan 的古老的稻田的节的考古学的分析证明了在东方中国的最高本地的海水平在 Holocene 期间出现在 7.0 ka BP 前。进入 Mid-Holocene，作为海水 regressed，一个广阔沼泽地平原出现在沿海的区域，在过时的 Hemudu 文化的农民栽培了米饭的地方。然而，仍然在 Mid-Holocene 有几个海平面的变化，哪个最大从 6.4 ～ 6.3 ka BP 并且从 4.6 ～ 2.1 ka BP。另外在沼泽地草植被统治的时期， 6.3 ～ 4.6 ka BP，更小的变化显然在回来上把海岸线推到陆地。尽管与这些海岸线违反联系的海平面的上升没有最高的海的紧张，铺平时期，将仍然生活和住在这个区域的人的生产活动上有深刻影响。从在 Tianluoshan 的古老的稻田的考古学的证据证明更大的海平面的上升事件推了海水到土地上并且淹没而更弱的海平面的上升事件沿着河导致了海水的侵入，在大米在土壤咸度和减少引起增加产出的稻田的大区域。米饭耕作上的海平面的上升的影响在本地饮食引起了变化。在米饭生产掉落了的区域，聚在一起并且狩猎的流行升起了。在早 Holocene 的高海层次暗示在东方沿海的平原的米饭耕作的起源是可能的在小附近的山盆。
Holocene climatic optimum
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With the aid of RS and GIS techniques and based on five TM images of Uxin Qi from 1986 to 2005, land use change is quantitatively studied by employing land use dynamic degree and land use shift matrix, landscape characteristics and dynamic changes of spatial landscape pattern are analyzed by using quantitative and qualitative methods, human driving factors of land use change are analyzed with socio-economic data. The research indicates (1) fluctuation between expansionary path and falling trend took place in land use types during the past 20 years. According to conversion direction of land use in 1986, woodland, grassland and sandy land transformed frequently, cropland were mainly converted to woodland, grassland and sandy land, water area mainly to other unutilized land which otherwise converted to grassland and sandy land, and no conversion happened to industrial and mining land. According to conversion source of land use in 2005, cropland was mainly converted from woodland, sandy land and grassland; woodland mainly converted from sandy land and grassland; grassland mainly converted from sandy land and woodland; water area mainly from sandy land and cropland; habitation mainly from sandy land, grassland and woodland; and other unutilized land mainly from grassland, water area and woodland. (2)Dynamics of landscape pattern in Uxin Qi manifest that fractal dimension of all landscape decreases, shape index shows an increasing trend except that of habitation, patch density and isolation degree presents a decreasing trend except that of water area, and dominance index declines and diversity index increases on the whole. (3) Population growth, economic development and ecological fathering projects are the main human driving factors influencing land use change.
Dominance (genetics)
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Shiyang 河排水盆位于亚洲季风区域的西北边缘。以前的研究在盆关于 Holocene 气候的变化得出了不同结论。一些研究建议 Holocene 气候的变化被亚洲季风主要控制并且气候在早 Holocene (11.67.1 cal ka BP ) 期间是相对潮湿的。另外的研究发现 mid-Holocene 气候的最佳(7.05.0 cal ka BP ) ，并且这个气候条件类似于在干旱中亚的 Holocene 西的风模式。现代气候被亚洲季风和西的风在排水盆影响，并且 Holocene 气候的记录显示出二不同 Holocene 气候的 patternsa 西的风模式和 monsoonal 模式。然而，什么引起了二不同 Holocene 气候的模式在这个区域共存，仍然保持不清楚。palynological 记录是为在盆的 Holocene 气候的变化的主要证据。这份报纸为排水盆的不同部分集中于 palynological 记录。在他们之中， QTH02， QTL-03 和 Sanjiaocheng 记录位于终端湖，并且 Hongshuihe 记录位于盆的中间的活动范围。在终端湖， QTH02 和 QTL-03 的 palynological 记录是类似的，但是 Sanjiaocheng 记录不同。差别被可变花粉集合主要在湖盆的不同地点影响。从四个 palynological 记录的比较和合成，我们断定千年规模的 Holocene 气候的变化被亚洲季风和西的风的联合效果在排水盆影响，它在亚洲季风的西北边缘显示出复杂 Holocene 气候的模式。
Holocene climatic optimum
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Based on Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System,it acquired land-use datum of Xiaojiang Basin in 1987,1995 and 2000.It presented land use change during 1987~2000,such as land-use change range and rate,conversion among land-use types and development trend of land-use pattern in 2015 by using Markov Probability Model.The studying findings were as following: farmland,woodland,town and resident land increased quickly from 1987 to 2000,especially farmland;farmland increased from 345.1 km~2 in 1987 to 398.7 km~2 in 2000.The land use change rate was rapid and the annual change rate reached to 0.49%.For each land-use type,the change rate of town and resident land was largest among all land-use types,and it was 3.52%;and next were farmland and water land.The increased farmland mainly came from woodland,grassland and water land;and some woodland was degenerated to grassland,accounting for 12.64%,except for woodland converting to farmland.Grassland and barren land changed a little.By 2015,area and proportion of farmland,woodland,water land,town and resident land will increase,and the area and proportion of grassland and barren land will decrease.
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Based on Landsat TM/ETM+ remote-sensing images and basic geographic information data in 1985 and 2000,the changes of land use/land cover in Dongjiang River Basin in recent 15 years were analyzed by using RS and GIS information acquisition technology,spatial analysis technique and landscape ecology method.The results showed that the major land covers were cropland and woodland.In recent 15 years,the area of woodland sharply decreased,the area of construction land increased significantly,cropland increased.The relative change extent of water area and unused land was little.The main directions of land use types transfer were the conversions between woodland,cropland and construction land,the conversions between cropland and construction land.The land use changes of areas had obvious regional difference.The landscape diversity of areas increased and the fragment of the landscape degree enlarged.The influences of the land use patterns of areas were more and more distinct by human activity.
Land Cover
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