Characterization of heterogeneous hydrogeological systems plays an important role in groundwater protection and remediation of contaminated sites. However, sparse field observations and/or lack of relevant in situ test results hinder regional characterization process. In such cases, advanced modelling techniques can improve characterization of such complex hydrogeological systems. A sequential approach using groundwater flow modelling with nonlinear inverse calibration, advective transport and geochemical modelling and isotope study to characterize heterogeneous systems has been developed in this case study. It was used to better understand the regional hydrogeology and groundwater system of the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone aquifer underlying the Belfast area, Northern Ireland. Based on the inversely calibrated flow model and advective transport modelling by particle tracking, geochemical interpretation of groundwater quality data and isotopic and geochemical inverse modelling at well-distributed spatial locations in the sandstone were carried out to verify the flow pathways and residence times and to identify the geochemical evolution in this heterogeneous hydrogeological system. These approaches provide multiple lines of evidence for characterization of the heterogeneous aquifer system. The flowpaths and residence times from the flow and advective transport modelling agreed well with the geochemical modelling and isotopic radiocarbon dating. This demonstrates the importance of incorporating both flow and geochemical analysis techniques in a hydrogeological study.
Handwashing with soap is recognized as a cost-effective intervention to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with enteric and respiratory infections. This study analyzes rural Indonesian households' hygiene behaviors and attitudes to examine how motivations for handwashing, locations of handwashing space in the household, and handwashing moments are associated with handwashing with soap as potential determinants of the behavior. The analysis was conducted using results from a UNICEF cross-sectional study of 1700 households in six districts across three provinces of Indonesia. A composite measure of handwashing with soap was developed that included self-reported handwashing, a handwashing demonstration, and observed handwashing materials and location of facilities in the home. Prevalence ratios were calculated to analyze associations between handwashing with soap and hypothesized determinants of the behavior. Our results showed that determinants that had a significant association with handwashing with soap included: (1) a desire to smell nice; (2) interpersonal influences; (3) the presence of handwashing places within 10 paces of the kitchen and the toilet; and (4) key handwashing moments when hands felt dirty, including after eating and after cleaning child stools. This study concludes that handwashing with soap may be more effectively promoted through the use of non-health messages.
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