Magmatic Fe-Ti oxide deposits are one of the most important iron deposit in eastern Tianshan, NW China, and their ore-forming mechanism remains obscure. Here, we use trace elements and O-Sr isotopes of apatite from two representative magmatic Fe-Ti oxide deposits (Niumaoquan and Weiya) in the eastern Tianshan to constrain the genesis of ore formation. The apatites from the Niumaoquan Fe-Ti oxide ores exhibit higher Eu/Eu* values, lower Mn contents, and larger REE variations than those from the Weiya Fe-Ti oxide ores, indicating a protracted evolution process of the Niumaoquan ore-forming magmas under a relatively reduced condition. Specifically, the apatites from the Niumaoquan Fe-Ti oxide ores can be divided into two groups: Group 1 with relatively low REE contents, low 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70574–0.70641) and high δ18O values (5.1–5.6‰), and Group 2 with relatively high REE contents, high 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70703–0.70792) and low δ18O values (2.8–3.3‰). The Group 1 apatites formed by early crystallization in the mantle, while the Group 2 apatites formed by assimilation of low δ18O-high 87Sr/86Sr altered rocks during magmas emplacement en route to the continental crust. Unlike the Niumaoquan apatites, the apatites from the Weiya Fe-Ti oxide ores have relatively homogeneous, high δ18O values (8.3‰-9.1‰) and 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70798–0.70848), indicating involvement of continental crustal materials in their mantle sources. Combined with previous studies, we suggest that the Niumaoquan and the Weiya Fe-Ti oxide deposits formed in a non-plume tectonic setting but they originated from different magmatic sources. Our study highlights that trace elements and O-Sr isotopes of apatite can be used as powerful tools to constrain the source characteristics and ore-forming processes of magmatic Fe-Ti oxide deposits.
Mechanisms for the enrichment and re-precipitation of gold in the giant Jiaodong gold deposits (eastern North China Craton) remain poorly constrained. To better understand the mineralization mechanism, we did in situ analyses of S isotopes on sulfides such as pyrite, pyrrhotite, galena and chalcopyrite from the disseminated (altered-rock type) and quartz-vein type gold deposits by femtosecond laser ablation coupled multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Pyrites from the altered-rock type gold deposit show δ34S values in the range from 7.4 to 11.3 ‰, which is obviously heavier than the quartz-vein type gold deposits with δ34S = 6.2 ∼ 8.8 ‰. Traditionally, the difference of sulfur isotopic compositions between the two types of gold deposits was attributed to the change in oxygen fugacity. However, we found that, from early to late metallogenic stage, sulfur isotopes of pyrites from the altered rock type gold deposits tend to decrease gradually and pyrrhotites can always be observed in the third stage. Moreover, the S isotopic compositions (δ34S = 7.9 to 8.2 ‰) of the pyrites coexisting with magnetite are comparable with those (δ34S = 6.2 to 8.0 ‰) of the pyrites coexisting with pyrrhotite in the quartz vein type gold deposits. These features indicate that the decrease of sulfur isotopes in pyrites was not caused by increase of oxygen fugacity. We suggest that the S isotopic and fO2 variation could be ascribed to an increase of pH of the ore-forming fluid, which is supported by the typically quartz dissolution and common occurrence of calcite and pyrrhotite in the late metallogenic stage (the third stage) and an overall decrease of aluminum contents of quartz from core to rim. We further proposed that the variation of pH of ore-forming fluids is probably related to a process of decompression due to development and enlargement of fractures filled with ore-forming fluids. Gold enrichment in the main ore-forming stage of the northwest Jiaodong gold deposit probably was realized by multiple phases of fluid pressure fluctuation, which subsequently led to repeatedly dissolution and re-precipitation of Au from pyrites due to decreasing oxygen fugacity and increasing pH values of the ore-forming fluids.
Abstract Rutile grains often occur in different types of gold deposits, and their U-Pb ages have been widely used to determine the formation time of gold mineralization. However, the origin of rutile grains in the gold deposits remains controversial. In this paper, laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analyses of U-Pb ages and trace elements on rutile grains were applied to investigate the metamorphic and hydrothermal processes of the Baiyun gold deposit (70 t Au, avg grade: 3 g/t) in the Liaodong Peninsula in the northeastern part of the North China craton. Rutile grains in the hydrothermal altered gold schist from the Baiyun deposit yielded two group ages of 1924 ± 18 and 237.0 ± 1.8 Ma, respectively. Combined with our systematic U-Pb zircon geochronological results of the ore-hosting schists and post-ore dikes, we suggest these rutile ages record a Paleoproterozoic metamorphic event and a Triassic hydrothermal gold mineralization event, respectively. The metamorphic and hydrothermal rutile grains have no obvious textural differences, but they show distinct trace element contents of Zr, W, Nb, and Ta. Combined with previous published data, we propose that high W (>1,000 ppm) and low Zr (<200 ppm) contents in rutile can be used to distinguish hydrothermal rutile from metamorphic and magmatic rutile. The newly identified ca. 237 Ma hydrothermal event is much older than the ca. 227 to 210 Ma Triassic magmatic rocks in the region, which precludes a temporal and genetic link between the Baiyun gold mineralization and the regional Mesozoic magmatism. Rather, the ca. 237 Ma gold mineralization may be associated with the Triassic orogenic metamorphism, and Baiyun is an orogenic gold deposit. The Triassic gold deposits in the northern margin of the North China craton formed by orogenesis between the Siberian craton and the North China craton. After a hiatus, the large-scale gold deposits formed during the Early Cretaceous in the North China craton due to a westward subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate beneath the craton since the Early Jurassic. Our study highlights that rutile in gold deposits may be inherited from the host rocks and/or formed by hydrothermal fluids. Distinguishing between these two different rutile generations requires a combination of in situ age dating and trace element geochemistry in petrogenetic context.
Extensive Permian mafic–ultramafic intrusions crop out within the eastern Tianshan, southern part of Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). Most of these mafic–ultramafic complexes are associated with Cu-Ni-Co deposits. However, Cihai, located in the southern part of the eastern Tianshan, is a large Fe deposit hosted in the Early Permian mafic rocks. The mafic to intermediate rocks are composed of gabbro, diabase, and monzodiorite. Geological and geochemical characteristics suggest that their parental magmas might have been generated by interaction between the depleted asthenospheric mantle and the metasomatized lithospheric mantle. Iron ores of the Cihai iron deposit are hosted in the diabase, and all Fe–Ti oxides in the ore-hosted diabase are ilmenite, instead of magnetite as previously reported. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns show that the magnetite separates from disseminated, banded, and massive iron ores, which are distinct from those in magmatic Fe-Ti deposits. Geological and chemical features suggest that the main ore bodies in the Cihai iron deposit are of hydrothermal origin, rather than magmatic as previously suggested. Numerous other Early Permian mafic rocks were recently identified in the Tarim basin and the eastern Tianshan with ages between 301 and 269 Ma. The mafic rocks in the Tarim basin exhibit characteristics of Oceanic Island Basalt (OIB), whereas the mafic rocks in the eastern Tianshan show island arc basalt (IAB) affinity. In addition, the presence of skarn iron deposit instead of Fe–Ti oxide deposit in the eastern Tianshan during the Early Permian time also lends little support for a plume-related environment. These features, together with a lack of verified anomalous high-temperature magmas in the eastern Tianshan, suggest that the Permian Tarim mantle plume may not account for the formation of the mafic rocks in the eastern Tianshan area, and that the Tarim LIP does not extend to the eastern Tianshan area.
The Hebaoshan gold deposit (41.5 t Au @ 3.5 g/t) is located in the southeastern region of the South China Block, central part of the Wuyishan metallogenic belt. The ore-hosting rocks in this area are predominantly Precambrian metasedimentary rocks and Caledonian granitic rocks. Two hydrothermal mineralization stages can be distinguished: a quartz-sericite-pyrite-native gold (stage I) and a chlorite-quartz-sericite-chalcopyrite-electrum (stage II), with hydrothermal monazite and rutile are firstly identified in separate stages. The complex geological history of the region has resulted in ongoing debates regarding the age of gold mineralization and the genesis of the major gold deposits in this area. In order to precisely constrain the mineralization age of the deposit and further establish a genetic model for the ore deposit, LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating and trace element analysis on accessory minerals were conducted. Based on the textures mineral assemblages, and geochemical features of the accessory minerals, magmatic apatite, hydrothermal rutile, and both magmatic and hydrothermal monazite were identified. The U-Pb ages of magmatic apatite and monazite are determined to be 445.3 ± 15.80, 441.3 ± 15.10 Ma and 446.57 ± 1.03 Ma, respectively, suggesting that these ages represent the emplacement ages of the Caledonian intrusive rocks. The ages of hydrothermal monazite and hydrothermal rutile are determined to be 238.46 ± 2.01 Ma (single-mineral analysis), 238.46 ± 2.01 Ma (in-suit analysis) and 179.54 ± 7.28 Ma, respectively, suggesting that represent two mineralization events during the Late Triassic to early Jurassic in the Hebaoshan area. These data provide new constraints on the mineralization process in the Hebaoshan deposit and excludes the link between gold mineralization and the intrusion of the Caledonian granites. Regionally, It is speculated that the two mineralization events at Hebaoshan are respectively associated with intracontinental orogenic movements between the Yangtze Block and Cathaysia Block, the flat-slab subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate (stage I), and the subsequent extensional tectonics related to the collision between the Yangtze Block and Cathaysia Block (stage II). Our study indicates that the timing of multiple episodic mineralization can be constrained by analysis of accessory minerals, which provides a geological basis for better genetic model for the deposit and provide geological evidence for unraveling the relationships between magmatic activities and mineralization events in the region.
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