In October 2013, small-scale excavations were undertaken at Barbon Park, Cumbria, on a series of features interpreted as former charcoal production sites. This formed part of Historic England's National Archaeological Identification Survey (NAIS) Upland Pilot: Lakes and Dales. The charcoal burning platforms were identified initially from aerial survey using a combination of aerial photographs and airborne laser scanning (lidar) data. Charcoal samples were recovered and chronological modelling shows the production sites to be post-medieval in date. Analysis of the charcoal recorded the dominance of Fraxinus, together with Maloideae/Prunus type, and lesser contributions of common woodland taxa, including Ilex and Hedera. Documentary research into the possible uses of the charcoal has proved inconclusive, although it seems that gunpowder and lime production can be reasonably discounted.
A continuous ∼5280 calendar (cal.) yr long cryptotephrostratigraphic record of a peat core from northern New Zealand demonstrates that cryptotephra studies can enhance conventional tephra records by extending the known distribution of ash fall and enabling re-assessment of volcanic hazards. A systematic sampling strategy was used to locate peaks in glass-shard concentrations and to determine loci of individual geochemical populations, and a palynological method involving spiking samples with Lycopodium spores was adapted to facilitate accurate counting of glass-shard concentrations. Using glass shard major element compositions, and a core chronology based on eight AMS 14 C ages and two visible macroscopic tephra layers, Taupo Tephra (Unit Y) (1688-1748 cal. BP) and Tuhua Tephra (6800-7230 cal. BP) (2cr-age ranges), four cryptotephras were correlated with known eruptions: Whakaipo (Unit V) (2743-2782 cal. BP), Stent (Unit Q) (4240-4510 cal. BP), and Unit K (4970-5290 cal. BP), erupted from Taupo Volcanic Centre, and Whakatane Tephra (5470-5600 cal. BP) erupted from Okataina Volcanic Centre. Mixed glass populations were found in the core, most likely an artefact of post-depositional remobilization of shards vertically (both up and down) in the peat or on its surface by wind, or a result of closely spaced eruption events, or a combination of these. A secondary glass population identified within the macroscopic Taupo Tephra was tentatively attributed to either an earlier phase within that eruption or to mixing with a slightly older Taupo-derived eruptive or (less likely) a currently unknown Okataina-derived eruptive. These results indicate that, in the absence of continuous cryptotephrostratigraphic analysis, a peak in shard concentrations may not in itself be indicative of the ‘true’ stratigraphic (ie, isochronous) level of a tephra layer. For cryptotephra studies of peat cores, we recommend (1) using a detailed sampling strategy for the analysis of distal tephra-derived glass to detect and account for any mixed populations and possible vertical spread of glass shards through the peat, and (2) analysing more shards from larger samples to help ‘capture’ sparsely represented cryptic andesitic tephra deposits.
Palaeoecological records can provide important information on past cultural and economic activities and landscape change. Wetland sites in particular provide remarkable depository opportunities for such remains. Yet these deposit and site types are often not fully appreciated and are undervalued in terms of their place in our culture and history. This article explores reasons for this and suggests ways in which better collaboration between disciplines and sectors can be achieved. We also highlight the work that Historic England has been carrying out and funding, signposting the organisation's publications and guidance. In doing so, we demonstrate that Historic England is an advocate of wetlands and their heritage values, and is concerned with their protection, rather than only historic buildings, scheduled monuments and other designated sites, as it is commonly perceived. Through this we hope to establish partnerships and develop networks across sectors with those who are interested in wetlands, leading to better integrated working practices.
Wood-boring insects such as the deathwatch beetle can cause significant damage to historical artefacts and timbers, but the extent of internal damage (and tunnelling activity in general) can be difficult to understand and quantify without the use of destructive sampling techniques. This study explored the potential of high-resolution photography and micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) to investigate beetle activity and inform on the extent of internal damage to a timber from HMS Victory. Micro-CT imaging has allowed the visualisation of deathwatch beetle activity within the timber, revealing differences in tunnelling behaviour preferences for adult and larval forms. Digital techniques were developed to determine the surface area of flight holes on some wooden blocks but were less successful for those blocks where the external surfaces were darkened with age. It was not possible to accurately determine the internal volumes of beetle tunnels within blocks of timber due to the presence of frass, which was found to be virtually indistinguishable digitally from the wood matrix.
The remains of hypocausts are noted as being widespread throughout the Roman Empire but, whereas the structure of hypocaust systems has been widely documented, primary knowledge of operating temperatures is limited. The petrographic technique of reflectance microscopy is used here to quantify cell wall reflectance values for charcoals from the hypocaust furnace of a bath suite forming part of small Romano-British villa complex at Groundwell Ridge near Swindon (Wiltshire, UK). The technique utilises material of archaeological origin to infer operating temperatures of the hypocaust furnace using established calibrations. The charcoals recovered from the furnace were identified as being predominantly Quercus (Oak) with some Populus/Salix (poplar/willow). Mean random reflectance of the samples indicated furnace-operating temperatures of 330–410°C. These temperatures fall below that of charcoal fuel production and hence suggest that it was wood that was used to fuel the hypocaust at Groundwell Ridge and not charcoal. Knowledge of the operating temperature of the furnace is a starting point in further calculations to understand, using primary evidence, the operating temperatures throughout the hypocaust system.
The history of the charcoal iron trade in the Southern Lake District in Cumbria, England is well recognised, with activity controlled by a very small number of iron production companies intensifying during the eighteenth century. This activity, from the initial extraction of the ore, through the development of a transport infrastructure and the construction of furnaces, to the management of woodlands for charcoal production, has left its mark on the landscape. A wealth of untapped information is held in the region's documentary archives, which provides data on the iron production companies themselves, primarily via account books and associated documents. These records include detail on the charcoal bought in—not only the dates and precise quantities, but the names of the source woodlands and even the names of the individual producers themselves. Using GIS, these sources have been examined in combination with remotely sensed data to provide new evidence of the impact of the iron trade on the woodlands of the Lake District. The results demonstrate that charcoal production was so vital to the iron industry that the woodlands were carefully and sustainably managed, the legacy of which we enjoy today.
In response to an enhanced interest in submerged landscapes and their nature, use and exploitation by early inhabitants, a multidisciplinary inventory of intertidal, nearshore and offshore peat deposits and ‘submerged forests’ around the English coast was compiled. The main driver was to assess the research potential of these types of deposits, in terms of their number, distribution and characteristics in order to identify recording priorities, especially where there is risk of either loss by erosion or of further submergence. The data collected included detailed site descriptions, locations, altitudes relative to modern sea-level, associated archaeological artefacts and any radiocarbon ages, as well as bibliographic references. Information was gathered from published sources, grey literature and the National Monuments Record, although some data (particularly those associated with offshore developments and aggregate extraction) remain confidential. At present the database contains information on over 300 sites, stored electronically. It constitutes a centralised resource to facilitate future coastal and marine research projects. Currently the database is only accessible on a one-to-one basis, but there are plans to make it available to users online. The project successfully involved the amalgamation of information from diverse sources and resulted in bringing together the often-segregated disciplines of Archaeology, Geology and Geography, with the hope of strengthening these relationships in the future.
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