The need for new water resources in water scarcity regions has driven the exploration of water reclamation through a variety of treatment technologies. The present study aims at reclaiming impacted urban groundwater through two different treatment routes: one based on adsorption and ion-exchange processes on consecutive pyrolusite, granular activated carbon, zeolite and Fe(oxy)hydroxide filters (route L1) and a second one relying on sorption (on pyrolusite) and RO-membrane filtration (route L2). Both routes were operated without and with prechlorination to ascertain whether NaClO, beyond inactivating undesired pathogens, affected the removal of target parameters (Mn, As, NH4+, DOC) and the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs). Results showed that route L1 was successful at removing Mn, As, pathogens and THMs at levels below those stipulated by the legislation on reuse and drinking water. Only NH4+ failed to decrease below its threshold limits for drinking water, but only in the absence of prechlorination. However, concentration of Cl− and Na+ increased during treatment due to the chemicals used, compromising reuse of the produced water in specific industrial sectors requiring low contents of these ions. Route L2 showed a consistent high removal of all targeted parameters (also NH4+) without and with prechlorination conditions, producing a finished water with high potential for reuse and production of drinking water. DOC and its fluorescent fulvic and humic-like fractions were moderately removed by route L1 but highly removed by route L2. The outperformance of route L2 in terms of produced water quality must be balanced by the associated treatment cost, as it was 8–10 % higher for route L2 than for route L1. This made evident that a trade-off between quality and cost must be faced. This study demonstrates that reclamation of urban groundwater through the proposed treatment routes has a huge potential for reuse for a wide diversity of final purposes (urban, agricultural, industrial, environmental and recreational uses) and, although it may need further exploration, likely for drinking water purposes.
Ball milling and ultra-sonication size reduction procedures were applied to granular ferric hydroxide (GFH) to obtain two micro-sized adsorbents. These two adsorbents and GFH were investigated to improve the removal of phosphates from water. The size reduction procedures, using the milling method, allowed a reduction of size from 0.5–2 mm to 0.1–2 µm and total disaggregation of the GFH structure. Using an ultra-sonication method yielded a final size of 1.9–50.3 µm with partial disaggregation. The Langmuir model correlated well with the isotherms obtained in batch equilibrium tests for the three adsorbents. The maximum adsorption capacity (qmax) for the milled adsorbent was lower than GFH, but using ultra-sonication was not different from GFH. The equilibrium adsorption of two wastewater samples with phosphate and other anions onto the GFH corresponded well with the expected removal, showing that potential interferences in the isotherms were not important. Batch kinetics tests indicated that the pseudo second-order model fitted the data. Long-term adsorption capacity in kinetics (qe) showed the same trend described for qmax. The application of milling and ultra-sonication methods showed 3.5- and 5.6-fold increases of the kinetic constant (k2) versus the GFH value, respectively. These results showed that ultra-sonication is a very good procedure to increase the adsorption rate of phosphate, maintaining qe and increasing k2.
Wetlands, as active riparian areas in denitrification processes, are largely dependent on the environment. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate changes in the denitrification potential of wetland soils at laboratory scale promoted by climatic and seasonal influences. Several batch denitrification tests were performed with fresh wetland soil (peat) from Brynemade (Denmark) under: three different temperatures (20, 10, and 5°C), drought period, and freeze-thaw event. Results show that nitrate was eliminated in all the experiments in percentages over 90%. However, not all the nitrate removed was reduced to nitrogen gas via the denitrification process; dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) was also present. In fact, the percentage of total nitrogen eliminated at the end of the tests was: 79.7% at 20°C, 84.1% at 10°C, 82.9% at 5°C, 41.0% in the dried soil, and 57.0% in the frozen soil. Thus, it can be concluded that the drying and freezing of the soil favor the DNRA process. Furthermore, in these conditions, nitrite increased sharply and was also accumulated possibly, as a DNRA or denitrification intermediate. Nitrate removal was fitted to a zero-order model, and an increase of the denitrification rates with the temperature was observed (3.8 mg L−1 d−1 at 20°C, 3.0 mg L−1 d−1 at 10°C, and 2.9 mg L−1 d−1 at 5°C). These overall rates were modeled as a function of temperature by the Arrhenius equation and activation energy of 12.88 kJ mol−1 was determined. The fact that the activation energy is low in this work (unstirred batches) compared to previous publications (stirred batches) could be the result of a strong restriction on the nitrate mass transfer in the soil vs. reaction kinetics, which masks kinetic regulating factors of the denitrification rate. Thus, the variation of the denitrification rate with temperature is possibly the result of a combination of changes in mass transfer (diffusive transport) and kinetic constant variation, successfully modeled by the Arrhenius equation.
The rapid development of nanotechnology has stimulated the use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in various fields that leads to their presence in different ecosystem compartments, in particular aquatic ecosystems. Several studies have shown that a variety of living organisms are affected by AgNPs. Therefore, a methodology to assess the risk of AgNPs for aquatic ecosystems was developed. The methodology is based on fuzzy logic, a proven method for dealing with variables with an associated uncertainty, as is the case with many variables related to AgNPs. After a careful literature search, a selection of relevant variables was carried out and the fuzzy model was designed. From inputs such as AgNPs’ size, shape, and coating, it is possible to determine their level of toxicity which, together with their level of concentration, are sufficient to create a risk assessment. Two case studies to assess this methodology are presented, one involving continuous effluent from a wastewater treatment plant and the second involving an accidental spill. The results showed that the accidental spills have a higher risk than WWTP release, with the combination of Plates–BPEI being the most toxic one. This approach can be adapted to different situations and types of nanoparticles, making it highly useful for both stakeholders and decision makers.