The paper presents use case simulations of fleets of electric buses in two cities in Europe, one with a warm Mediterranean climate and the other with a Northern European (cool temperate) climate, to compare the different climatic effects of the thermal management strategy and charging management strategy. Two bus routes are selected in each city, and the effects of their speed, elevation, and passenger profiles on the energy and thermal management strategy of vehicles are evaluated. A multi-objective optimization technique, the improved Simple Optimization technique, and a “brute-force” Monte Carlo technique were employed to determine the optimal number of chargers and charging power to minimize the total cost of operation of the fleet and the impact on the grid, while ensuring that all the buses in the fleet are able to realize their trips throughout the day and keeping the battery SoC within the constraints designated by the manufacturer. A mix of four different types of buses with different battery capacities and electric motor specifications constitute the bus fleet, and the effects that they have on charging priority are evaluated. Finally, different energy management strategies, including economy (ECO) features, such as ECO-comfort, ECO-driving, and ECO-charging, and their effects on the overall optimization are investigated. The single bus results indicate that 12 m buses have a significant battery capacity, allowing for multiple trips within their designated routes, while 18 m buses only have the battery capacity to allow for one or two trips. The fleet results for Barcelona city indicate an energy requirement of 4.42 GWh per year for a fleet of 36 buses, while for Gothenburg, the energy requirement is 5 GWh per year for a fleet of 20 buses. The higher energy requirement in Gothenburg can be attributed to the higher average velocities of the bus routes in Gothenburg, compared to those of the bus routes in Barcelona city. However, applying ECO-features can reduce the energy consumption by 15% in Barcelona city and by 40% in Gothenburg. The significant reduction in Gothenburg is due to the more effective application of the ECO-driving and ECO-charging strategies. The application of ECO-charging also reduces the average grid load by more than 10%, while shifting the charging towards non-peak hours. Finally, the optimization process results in a reduction of the total fleet energy consumption of up to 30% in Barcelona city, while in Gothenburg, the total cost of ownership of the fleet is reduced by 9%.
Les granitoides de Bouskour et de l'Ougnat (Saghro, Anti-Atlas) representent respectivement les intrusions les plus proches et les plus eloignees par rapport a l'accident majeur de l'Anti-Atlas. Ils sont composes a Bouskour de diorite quartzique, de granodiorite a amphibole et de granite a biotite et a Ougnat de diorite quartzique, de granodiorite a amphibole/biotite et de granite a grenat. La typologie du zircon appliquee a ces granitoides montre l'existence de trois tendances magmatiques dans les deux boutonnieres. Une tendance granodioritique ou moyennement potassique representee par les diorites quartziques et les granodiorites dans ces deux ensembles et une tendance calco-alcaline plus potassique representee par le granite a biotite a Bouskour. Ces deux suites possedent une origine hybride croute-manteau. Le granite a grenat de l'Ougnat represente la troisieme tendance avec une origine plutot crustale. Cette repartition montre que le composant crustal augmente depuis Bouskour jusqu'a l'Ougnat impliquant un epaississement crustal au niveau de Saghro au cours du Neoproterozoique. Both the Bouskour and the Ougnat granitoids belong to Sahgro intrusions, which are near and far from the major Anti-Atlas accident respectively. These complexes are composed of quartz diorite, amphibole granodiorite and garnet granite in Bouskour, and quartz diorite, amphibole/biotite granodiorite and garnet granite in Ougnat hills. Zircon typology in these granitoids shows three magmatic trends. First, a medium-K calc-alkaline granodiorite trend formed by quartz diorites and amphibole granodiorites in both complexes. Second, the biotite granites of Bouskour record a high-K calc-alkaline trend. Both trends have a hybrid mantle-crust origin. Garnet granite represents the third trend with a crustal origin. These signatures recorded by the Saghro granitoids suggest crustal thickening during the Neoproterozoic.
The present study aimed to evaluate the suitability for drinking purpose of shallow groundwater near the Béni-Mellal wastewater treatment lagoon based on various physicochemical, heavy metals, and bacteriological parameter analyses. The physicochemical results revealed that some of the samples do not comply with the Moroccan and/or WHO standards for drinking water. Parameters including turbidity, TH, Na+, Li+, Ba2+, Ca2+ (∼47.1% of samples), Cd (∼52.9% of samples), Fe (∼82.4% of samples), Pb (∼58.8% of samples), T. coliforms, and E. coli exceeded the drinking limits. The statistical analyses revealed that the shallow groundwater chemistry is mainly controlled by geogenic and anthropogenic sources. For quality assessment, using the Moroccan groundwater assessment grid, the values of EC and Cl–, NO3–, NH4+, oxidability, and E. coli, fixed as pollution indicators, showed that most of the wells showed medium-to-poor quality, 14% of them have a very poor water quality, and 20% of them belong to the bad water quality. According to geometric and arithmetic DWQI values, the groundwater quality was frequently fair to good, needing treatment or at least disinfection before public consumption. A sensitivity analysis results indicated that Fe, Cd, Cr, Pb, and E. coli have an important impact on the DWQI computing.
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art related to the implementation of battery electric buses (BEBs) in cities. In recent years, bus operators have started focusing on the electrification of their fleet to reduce the air pollutants in cities, which has led to a growing interest from the scientific community. This paper presents an analysis of the BEB powertrain topology and the charging technology of BEBs, with a particular emphasis on the power electronics systems. Moreover, the different key technical requirements to facilitate the operation of BEBs are addressed. Accordingly, an in-depth review on vehicle scheduling, charger location optimization and charging management strategies is carried out. The main findings concerning these research fields are summarized and discussed. Furthermore, potential challenges and required further developments are determined. Based on this analysis, it can be concluded that an accurate energy consumption assessment of their BEBs is a must for bus operators, that real-time, multi-objective smart charging management strategies with V2X features should be included when performing large bus fleet scheduling and that synchronized opportunity charging, smart green depot charging, and electric bus rapid transit can further reduce the impact on the grid. This review paper should help to enable a smarter and more efficient integration of BEBs in cities in the future.
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